Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
Blockchain paradigm in the metaverse
Paradigma blockchain en el metaverso
Paradigma Blockchain no metaverso
Luis Fernando Arteaga Medranda
1
Universidad Técnica de Manabí
larteaga4293@utm.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-8154-9755
Andrea Katherine Alcívar Cedeño
2
Universidad Técnica de Manabí
andrea.alcivar@utm.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7437-197X
Roger Hernán Arteaga Delgado
3
Universidad Técnica de Manabí
roger.artega@utm.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0009-0003-0251-6078
Jorge Luis Veloz Zambrano
4
Universidad Técnica de Manabí
jorge.veloz@utm.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9001-4478
DOI / URL: https://doi.org/10.55813/gaea/ccri/v4/n2/258
Como citar:
Medranda, L., Alcívar, A., Arteaga, R. & Veloz, J. (2023). Blockchain paradigm in the
metaverse. Código Científico Revista de Investigación, 4(2), 818-857.
Recibido: 11/09/2023 Aceptado: 11/12/2023 Publicado: 31/12/2023
1
Estudiante Ingeniería en Sistemas Informáticos. Universidad Técnica de Manabí Portoviejo – Ecuador
2
Magister en Telecomunicaciones. Ingeniero en Sistemas Computacionales. Docente Universidad Técnica de
Manabí Portoviejo – Ecuador
3
Ingeniero en Sistemas Informáticos. Docente Universidad Técnica de Manabí Portoviejo – Ecuador
4
Magister en Telecomunicaciones. Ingeniero en Sistemas Computacionales. Docente Universidad Técnica de
Manabí Portoviejo – Ecuador
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
819
Resumen
La tecnología blockchain actualmente es una tecnología que está siendo muy utilizada en
diversos sectores, uno de los campos donde está siendo muy utilizada es el metaverso que es
otra tecnología en auge. Estas dos tecnologías están estrechamente relacionadas y juegan un
papel esencial en el progreso tecnológico en diversos ámbitos, como la educación, la medicina
y el teletrabajo. Por tal motivo, se decidió realizar una investigación que explicara cómo se está
aplicando la tecnología blockchain dentro del metaverso. Para realizar esta investigación se
utilizó el método Prisma, el cual facilitó realizar una investigación adecuada siguiendo los
criterios establecidos. Se consultaron tres bases de datos: Scopus, IEEE Xplore y ACM, en las
cuales se aplicaron las cadenas de búsqueda específicas para cada base de datos y se obtuvieron
los artículos utilizados para realizar esta revisión sistemática. En este estudio fue posible
ampliar los conceptos generales de blockchain y metaverso. Se detalló la estructura de la
blockchain y se presentaron otras estructuras propuestas por varios autores, como HCNCT,
MIS, FileInsurer y BlockNet. También se abordó el uso de blockchain en el metaverso,
describiendo su propósito y cómo se está utilizando para mejorar diversos aspectos, como la
seguridad, el almacenamiento de datos, las transacciones y la economía. Asimismo, se exploró
el uso actual de Blockchain en tecnologías como NFT y criptomonedas. Finalmente,
profundizamos en cómo blockchain es un componente esencial del metaverso, especialmente
cuando se trata de la seguridad de los mundos virtuales.
Palabras claves: Cadena de bloques; Metaverso; NFT; Economía; VD; Seguridad.
Abstract
Blockchain technology is currently a technology that is being widely used in various sectors,
one of the fields where it is being widely used is the metaverse, which is another booming
technology. These two technologies are closely related and play an essential role in
technological progress in various areas, such as education, medicine and teleworking. For this
reason, it was decided to carry out an investigation which would explain how blockchain
technology is being applied within the metaverse. To carry out this research, the Prisma method
was used, which facilitated the completion of an appropriate investigation following the
established criteria. Three databases were consulted: Scopus, IEEE Xplore and ACM, in which
the specific search strings for each database were applied and the articles used to carry out this
systematic review were obtained. In this study, it was possible to expand the general concepts
of blockchain and metaverse. The structure of the blockchain was detailed and other structures
proposed by several authors were presented, such as HCNCT, MIS, FileInsurer and BlockNet.
The use of blockchain in the metaverse was also addressed, describing its purpose and how it
is being used to improve various aspects, such as security, data storage, transactions, and
economics. Likewise, the current use of Blockchain in technologies such as NFTs and
cryptocurrencies was explored. Finally, we delved into how the blockchain is an essential
component of the metaverse, especially when it comes to the security of virtual worlds
Keywords: Blockchain; Metaverse; NFT; Economy; RV; Security.
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
820
Resumo
A tecnologia Blockchain é atualmente uma tecnologia que está sendo amplamente utilizada em
diversos setores, um dos campos onde está sendo amplamente utilizada é o metaverso, que é
outra tecnologia em expansão. Estas duas tecnologias estão intimamente relacionadas e
desempenham um papel essencial no progresso tecnológico em vários domínios, como a
educação, a medicina e o teletrabalho. Por esse motivo, decidiu-se realizar uma investigação
que explicasse como a tecnologia blockchain está sendo aplicada no metaverso. Para a
realização desta pesquisa foi utilizado o método Prisma, que facilitou a realização de uma
investigação adequada seguindo os critérios estabelecidos. Foram consultadas três bases de
dados: Scopus, IEEE Xplore e ACM, nas quais foram aplicadas as strings de busca específicas
de cada base de dados e obtidos os artigos utilizados para a realização desta revisão sistemática.
Neste estudo foi possível ampliar os conceitos gerais de blockchain e metaverso. A estrutura
do blockchain foi detalhada e foram apresentadas outras estruturas propostas por diversos
autores, como HNCT, MIS, FileInsurer e BlockNet. O uso do blockchain no metaverso também
foi abordado, descrevendo sua finalidade e como ele está sendo utilizado para melhorar
diversos aspectos como segurança, armazenamento de dados, transações e economia. Da
mesma forma, foi explorado o uso atual do Blockchain em tecnologias como NFT e
criptomoedas. Por fim, investigamos como o blockchain é um componente essencial do
metaverso, especialmente quando se trata da segurança dos mundos virtuais.
Palavras-chave: Blockchain; Metaverso; NFTs; Economia; VOCÊ; Segurança.
Introducción
This research analyzes the integration of blockchain technology in the metaverse due
to its growing relevance today and the interest it has aroused in the scientific community. Given
the abundance of works and studies in these fields, the purpose of this study is to collect and
present valuable information in an understandable way, with the aim of sharing the results
obtained in this area.
In this section, the concepts of the metaverse and blockchain will be presented to delve
deeper into the topic. The following sections will delve into the topic, showing more
information about the blockchain, how it is structured and how this technology is used in the
metaverse.
1) Metaverse: The "metaverse" identified as the latest technological trend with the
potential to revolutionize the digital visual perspective in the modern world, a concept that
transcends mere technology and enters the realm of human experience and digital creativity.
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
821
Its resonance has become even stronger in a world affected by the COVID-19 pandemic
(Karunarathna et al., 2023) where the need for meaningful virtual connections and richer online
experiences has increased significantly. As most industries move towards digitalization, the
metaverse emerges as a promising platform for this transition by offering an immersive three-
dimensional (3D) experience for users (Kuru, 2023). As the boundaries between the physical
and the digital become more permeable, the metaverse presents itself as the quintessential
medium to navigate this intersection. The root of this concept lies in the novel "Snow Crash",
where the notion of a parallel virtual world that could be inhabited and explored by digital
avatars engaging in recreational and competitive activities was first outlined. Although it
seemed like a distant fantasy at the time, technological innovations and the evolution of virtual
reality and augmented reality have turned this fantasy into a plausible reality. Considered a
disruptive technology for the future of the Internet, companies like "Meta" (formerly Facebook)
are dedicated to its development, promoting interaction between the real and virtual worlds (Y.
Wang et al., 2022; Zhang, Luo, et al., 2023; Zhang, Mao, et al., 2023). The metaverse is
generally defined as a network of 3D virtual worlds, facilitated by the use of virtual reality
(VR) and augmented reality (AR) headsets and has an emphasis on social interaction and
various future applications (Srinivasan et al., 2023). The metaverse stands out not only for its
ability to create attractive 3D virtual environments but also for its emphasis on social
interaction. Avatars not only represent people in this space, but also encourage communication
and collaboration, giving people the opportunity to experience human connection through
digital platforms in a much more immersive way. The feeling of “being there” becomes more
palpable as virtual reality and augmented reality technologies continue to evolve. Our
perspective on virtual worlds can be extended. A "mirror world" is a three-dimensional virtual
environment that reproduces a real-world place or setting (Polys et al., 2022). In this space
people may feel the desire to physically explore or alter with the intention of creating something
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
822
completely new and original, for example, what is presented in the work (Kuru, 2023) which
facilitates the construction of high-fidelity virtual urban metaverse cyberspaces adapted to the
community and citizens, where users can be free to explore and interact with the virtual world
and create whatever they want. Other recent developments in the Metaverse include the huge
online video game industry such as: Roblox, Fortnite and Minecraft. And online games based
on blockchain or NFT such as: Axie Infinity, Decentraland and Upland (Cheng et al., 2022).
The metaverse is expanding the possibilities of interactive entertainment and the virtual
economy. However, its impact goes beyond gaming, finding applications for socially beneficial
activities such as education and vocational training (Jansen et al., 2023). The ability to simulate
situations and scenarios in a virtual environment can significantly improve the way we learn
and acquire practical skills. In short, the metaverse is not just a passing trend; It is a cultural
shift that reshapes our relationship with technology and redefines how we interact and create
in the digital world. As technologies continue to evolve, the metaverse is becoming fertile
ground for innovation, creativity and human connection, impacting not only the way we
entertain ourselves but also the way we learn, work and experience. reality itself.
2) Blockchain: A term that evokes innovation and transformation, it represents a
technology with a scope beyond what its own blockchains could show. Its essence lies in its
ability to revolutionize the management and transfer of digital information. It is a technology
that allows you to create, store and transfer digital information in a secure, transparent and
decentralized way, through the use of peer-to-peer (P2P) networks, cryptography, smart
contracts and tokens. Blockchain originated in 2009 with the launch of Bitcoin, ushering in a
paradigm shift in the way we understand trust and truthfulness in online transactions (Imperius
& Alahmar, 2022). This first decentralized cryptocurrency backed by a proof-of-work based
consensus mechanism paved the way for the adoption of blockchain technology and its
underlying applications. However, its usefulness goes far beyond cryptocurrencies. Over the
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
823
years, blockchain technology has expanded its influence and become a mainstay in a variety of
sectors. From finance to supply chain, from insurance to copyright, from healthcare to personal
identity (Cao, 2022; Imperius & Alahmar, 2022; Song & Qin, 2022). Blockchain has proven to be a
versatile and reliable solution in each of these domains; The essential feature of
decentralization supported by blockchain technology has contributed to data security,
transparency, and integrity. It's not just about data and transactions; Blockchain is also a crucial
foundation for the evolution towards Web3.0, where users regain control over their digital
sovereignty (C. Chen et al., 2022). As technology evolves, the possibilities of decentralized
applications and the elimination of unnecessary middlemen become more and more real. The
essence of Web3.0 is the emancipation of the user by giving them ownership of their data and
the ability to interact online without depending on centralized entities. Blockchain is an
ingenious structure in which data takes on a new level of security and consistency thanks to the
way blocks are interconnected backed by solid foundations. The basis of this architecture lies
in the notion of block linking where each block contains a hash that connects to the previous
block, thus forging an immutable chain that preserves the integrity of the information over time
(Cao, 2022; Hsueh & Chin, 2023; Shao et al., 2023). This feature of immutability grants confidence
in the trail of data and transactions, which becomes essential in contexts where veracity and
traceability are paramount. The mechanism of this technology is materialized through the
network nodes that validate and replicate each transaction and asset in the chain (Imperius &
Alahmar, 2022). These nodes function as digital gatekeepers ensuring that the integrity of the
chain remains intact and that data cannot be modified without consensus. This is how you build
a distributed ledger, which is an accurate, shared representation of transactions that inspires
trust (Aria et al., 2023; Huynh-The, Pham, et al., 2023). This ledger, being decentralized and
backed by cryptography, becomes a reliable source of information.
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
824
An equally intriguing component of blockchain is smart contracts, programs that
automatically operate according to predefined rules. These autonomous protocols eliminate
intermediaries since they are executed without the need for third parties. This not only
streamlines processes but also minimizes human errors and reduces costs (Imperius & Alahmar,
2022; Qin et al., 2023; Singh et al., 2022). The self-executing ability of these contracts opens the
door to a variety of applications, from automating agreements to creating transparent and
secure voting systems. Furthermore, tokens are another key term in the blockchain field. These
units of value have the versatility to represent both physical and digital assets on the blockchain
(Song & Qin, 2022). Whether it is a currency, a digital good, or even ownership of a physical
asset, tokens enable a unique and transferable representation of value in the digital space
(Ritterbusch & Teichmann, 2023; Yilmaz et al., 2022). This feature is integrated into various
applications, from creating digital currencies to tokenizing real-world assets.
Blockchain technology is not only an innovation in the way we store and manage data,
it also sets a new standard for security in the digital world. Storing data in distributed ledgers
instead of centralized databases. This paradigm shift creates a virtual barrier against
cyberattacks by distributing information between nodes and eliminating single points of
vulnerability. By fragmenting data into blocks and distributing them across the network,
hackers are faced with a nearly impossible task: accessing and altering every record in the
chain. This decentralization acts as an additional layer of security by increasing confidence in
the integrity of the stored data. A critical aspect of blockchain security is its ability to exclude
suspicious records and maintain ongoing integrity. This is achieved through its consensus
architecture and the validation of transactions by the network nodes (Song & Qin, 2022). Every
transaction or modification on the chain requires a majority consensus that prevents malicious
or inaccurate records from being introduced onto the chain. This ensures that the chain is
maintained as a reliable and accurate record of transactions. Building trust is one of the main
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
825
objectives of blockchain and this is achieved through its ability to operate on public or private
networks (Hsueh & Chin, 2023). Public networks like Bitcoin and Ethereum validate data through
miner competition, ensuring that only verified and agreed upon data is accepted. On the other
hand, private networks are established between trusted parties and use pre-established
agreements to validate transactions, resulting in greater speed and control. The immutable
characteristic of blocks supported by the use of hashes to link them is a fundamental pillar of
blockchain security (Hsueh & Chin, 2023). However, it is important to recognize that while
blockchain guarantees immutability, it does not necessarily guarantee absolute reliability of the
stored data. Erroneous or incorrect information entered into the chain will initially persist,
underscoring the importance of accuracy and verification of data entered into the chain.
In summary Blockchain is a disruptive technology that changes the way we manage
and transfer data. Based on blockchains linked by hashes, it guarantees security and integrity.
It emerged with Bitcoin in 2009 but its impact goes beyond cryptocurrencies. With smart
contracts and tokens it allows the automation and representation of assets. Its decentralization
and constant validation increase security and trust in the data. In essence, blockchain redefines
digital security and information management.
Our contributions in this research are the following:
✓ Give an introduction to blockchain and Metaverse topics.
✓ Explain the multidimensional structure of blockchain, as well as expose blockchain-
based structures proposed by various authors.
✓ Research and write up the use of blockchains in the metaverse, including their current
use in different areas of the metaverse.
✓ We write how the blockchain is used as a security tool in the metaverse.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section II describes the method used in
this research and the search process, in Section III we describe the multidimensional blockchain
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
826
structure and other proposed structures based on the blockchain structure, in Section IV
describes the use of the blockchain in the metaverse, in section V we explain how the
blockchain is currently used and what are the different uses it gives it within the metaverse, in
section VI we describe how the blockchain is used as a security tool In the metaverse, section
VII contains the discussion, future work and conclusions are proposed.
Development
Blockchain structure
A. Multidimensional Blockchain Structure
The “Multidimensional Blockchain Structure” represents an innovation based on
perspectives shared by various blockchain technology experts. The concept of blockchain
resembles a decentralized digital ledger that, using cryptographic methods, tracks transactions
and assets on a secure network (Uddin et al., 2023).This is similar to the notion of splitting
transactions across multiple time dimensions in the multidimensional structure, which
enhances security and record sharing. The blockchain stores data in a decentralized network
through digital signatures comparable to how transactions are stored securely in each temporal
dimension of the structure (Ali et al., 2023). This feature ensures that information is difficult
to modify without proper authorization. The proposal of an "open distributed blockchain" is
reflected in the multidimensional architecture where each temporal dimension acts as an
independent and at the same time connected entity (Lian, 2022). The connection between
dimensions is ensured through intelligent interconnection supported by a sophisticated routing
system. Including hashes in each block also helps ensure the integrity and immutability of data
in each dimension. Specific consensus algorithms can increase the reliability of decentralized
storage (H. Chen et al., 2022). The multidimensional structure allows each temporal dimension
to employ the most appropriate consensus algorithm for its needs, optimizing efficiency and
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
827
reliability. Blockchain is essential for creating trustworthy environments (M. Xu, Guo, et al.,
2023) is reflected in the multidimensional structure since each temporal dimension contributes
to a safe and transparent environment. The full node conception relates to the notion that each
temporal dimension in the structure acts as a full node that validates and stores specific
transactions (Doe et al., 2023). Blockchain can act as a bridge between physical and virtual
worlds to share information and build decentralized economic systems (Lin, Du, et al., 2023).
The Multidimensional Blockchain Structure achieves this integration by connecting various
temporal dimensions. The categories of authorized and unauthorized blockchains proposed are
relevant in the structure, since different temporal dimensions can have variable levels of access
and permissions (Ryu et al., 2022). Finally, he highlights that consensus protocols are essential
to solve trust challenges in the blockchain (H. Wang et al., 2023). The Multidimensional
Blockchain Structure emphasizes the efficiency of consensus algorithms to strengthen the trust
and integrity of each temporal dimension. Altogether The "Multidimensional Blockchain
Structure" emerges as a proposal that merges the visions of several experts in blockchain
technology, addressing current challenges and building a more versatile and secure system.
Combining the concepts presented by these authors creates a framework that distributes
transactions across time dimensions, leverages specific consensus algorithms, and connects
physical and virtual worlds. This structure seeks to overcome the limits of traditional
blockchains by providing greater security, efficiency and adaptability in a constantly evolving
ecosystem.
B. Other Proposed Structures
Blockchain technology has revolutionized the way transactions are managed and
security is ensured in various fields. Below, we delve into several authors' perspectives on
alternative blockchain structures by exploring how these innovative approaches could solve the
technology's current and future challenges.
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
828
“BlockNet” is introduced as an intriguing framework that seeks to overcome the
limitations of conventional blockchains through multidimensional data-oriented storage. This
architecture introduces nodes with multiple degrees of entry and exit, strengthening the
robustness and resilience of the network. The non-elasticity and deformability capability in
BlockNet is achieved through spreading gene propagation, adding an additional layer of
security and flexibility. Interconnecting nodes with varying degrees of input and output
redefines the way relationships between blocks and nodes are conceived (Lv et al., 2022). This
enables the development of multi-chain applications and blockchain microservices, creating
exponentially more capabilities and possibilities for the blockchain ecosystem.
"FileInsurer" a revolutionary protocol for building a decentralized storage network
based on blockchain. With the exponential increase in data in the digital age, this structure
presents itself as a powerful solution by allowing storage providers to share unused resources
while providing secure and efficient file distribution (H. Chen et al., 2022). The dynamic file
locations and insurance scheme implemented in DSN (Decentralized Storage Network) offer
demonstrable robustness and guarantee full compensation for losses. The introduction of
randomness in the selection of file locations highlights the importance of equitable distribution
and prevention of malicious attacks. This structure is capable of achieving scalability and
reliability.
Another proposal is based on a structure in which each database in the database layer
is mapped to a network of blockchains, creating a system of interconnected blockchains. This
multi-layer architecture enables data separation and secure, efficient implementation of
transactions (Lian, 2022). Encryption and sequential organization of transactions are essential
for the coherent operation of this system. The integration with the cloud data sharing module
underlines the need for seamless collaboration between blockchain systems and cloud services.
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
829
A unified blockchain-semantic framework in the context of Web 3.0 unites semantic
and blockchain ecosystems in a unified architecture (Lin, Gao, et al., 2023). This innovative
approach spans multiple layers and technologies addressing information overload and
improving interaction efficiency. The integration of blockchain technology into each layer of
the system provides transparency, security and decentralization. The incorporation of semantic
mechanisms and deep learning-based adaptation highlight the need for greater efficiency in
semantic data processing.
Blockchain-based MEC Platform presents a blockchain-based platform aimed at
sharing and optimizing resources in the Metaverse. The proposed architecture involving users,
MEC servers and blockchain consortium technology, creates an ecosystem where resources are
used efficiently and securely (Z. Wang et al., 2022). Dynamic assignment of download tasks
and randomization in the selection of file locations contribute to a fair and resilient
environment. The Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) consensus implementation
highlights the importance of reliability in constantly evolving metaverse environments.
Blockchain-assisted semantic communication is being explored, highlighting how this
structure can catalyze data circulation and economic activities in the Metaverse (Lin, Du, et al.,
2023). The use of targeted semantic attacks to improve semantic similarity and the
implementation of zero-knowledge proofs reinforce the integrity of the communication. The
incorporation of AIGC (Artificial Intelligence and Content Generation) services highlights the
need to advance reliable and secure semantic interaction.
With the rise of metaverses, an architecture is proposed that merges blockchain with
edge computing technologies, creating a model that combines the reliability of the blockchain
with the efficiency of edge computing (M. Xu, Guo, et al., 2023). Network virtualization and
efficient allocation of computing tasks offer a versatile and scalable solution for the demands
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
830
of emerging metaverses. Collaboration between large and small companies highlights the
importance of interconnection in the blockchain ecosystem.
Focused on secure authentication in metaverse environments, an approach that manages
user identification data using blockchain technology is presented (Ryu et al., 2022). This
framework strengthens security and privacy in emerging metaverses, addressing concerns
about digital identity and confidentiality. The implementation of ECC (Elliptic Curve
Encryption) and biometric information underlines the need for strong and reliable
authentication in an increasingly complex digital environment.
“HCNCT” proposes a new model so that the different blockchains in the Metaverse can
exchange digital content and digital assets more securely. To achieve this, it uses
interconnected HCNCT chains and adds a notary system that is based on features that make
transactions secure and do not depend on a single central entity (Ren et al., 2023). It uses
cryptographic techniques such as key sharing and verifiable secrets to protect transactions
between different chains. This solves problems that exist in the traditional HTLC method,
which has weaknesses against certain attacks and can also rely too much on a centralized entity
for verification. Additionally, it includes a way to evaluate user trustworthiness, which
decreases the likelihood of malicious people ruining transactions. This ensures that transactions
are completed successfully. To ensure the reliability of the notarial system, they also
implemented careful management of those in charge of the verification process.
Finally, MIS proposes an identifier management solution for the metaverse (H. Wang
et al., 2023). Aiming to eliminate DNS centralization, MIS is based on the consortium
blockchain and seeks to overcome storage and latency limitations. The separation of on-chain
and off-chain data and the encryption scheme contribute to security and access control. The
implementation of a 4-tier architecture on the blockchain underscores the need for a scalable
and adaptive structure for the ever-changing metaverse.
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
831
This comprehensive analysis offers a panoramic view of proposals that challenge
traditional blockchain structures. By exploring a variety of innovative approaches, this article
contributes to the understanding and advancement of ever-evolving blockchain technologies
by offering potential solutions to emerging challenges in the digital world.
Blockchain in the Metaverse
The concept of Blockchain in the Metaverse represents a critical convergence between
innovative blockchain technology and the emerging Metaverse, a digital space that
amalgamates elements of the real and virtual world. This convergence is critical to
understanding how blockchain technology is shaping the future of the Metaverse and how these
two technologies are poised to influence each other in significant ways. Initially, blockchain
technology stands out as the backbone of Web3.0, an evolution of the Internet based on
principles of decentralization, security and privacy. This has the potential to revolutionize
online communication by providing users with greater control over their data and a more secure
and confidential experience. The blockchain's ability to safeguard the security of users in the
Metaverse is an essential aspect of its adoption (Far et al., 2022). A key aspect of the Metaverse
is the convergence with Web3 and technologies such as blockchain. This means that Web3 and
the blockchain are intrinsically linked to the development and functioning of the Metaverse.
This interconnection further underscores the importance of blockchain technology in creating
the Metaverse and its ability to enable a variety of applications and services within this
emerging space (Buchholz et al., 2022). From a broader perspective, blockchain stands out as
a crucial enabler for the creation of a fair, free and sustainable society within the Metaverse.
This new digital space is taking shape as an interactive multimedia community where equity
and justice in digital interactions are fundamental. The blockchain becomes an essential tool to
ensure that transactions and interactions in the Metaverse are transparent and fair (Duan et al.,
2021).
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
832
When it comes to economic interactions and transactions in the Metaverse. The
Metaverse economy benefits significantly from blockchain technology. The ability to make
secure and anonymous transactions as well as the exchange of virtual assets for real-world
currency are essential elements of this emerging economy. The blockchain is considered a
fundamental infrastructure of the Metaverse as it connects isolated sectors and establishes a
solid economic system with transparent and open rules (Yang et al., 2022). Providing the
necessary foundation for this economic interaction which integrates the Metaverse into the
global economy and creates expansive opportunities for users (Huynh-The, Gadekallu, et al.,
2023; H. Xu et al., 2022). The Metaverse benefits from blockchain systems by providing an
immersive experience and integrating the virtual world into trusted economic, information and
identity systems. This is essential for the Metaverse to become a cohesive and functional space
(Tao et al., 2023).
In addition to its economic impact, the blockchain is also used to modernize and
personalize operations within the Metaverse. This translates into more efficient industrial
development along with the implementation of artificial intelligence to improve the user
experience in this constantly evolving environment (Kang et al., 2022; Li et al., 2023). It is
important to mention how blockchain is moving into various domains including the IoT
environment, automated manufacturing processes, secure data aggregation and mixed reality
content sharing (Maksymyuk et al., 2022). The personal experience in the metaverses
conceived by companies like Facebook or Microsoft requires detailed representations, realistic
interaction between users and natural interfaces (Santos-Torres et al., 2022) which further
underlines the importance of blockchain in this context. Artificial intelligence and blockchain
are central components in building metaverse models as they help bring these virtual worlds to
life in a realistic and dynamic way (Ibrahim et al., 2023).
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
833
The blockchain is also used to manage the reputation and participation records of
workers in the Metaverse (Jiang et al., 2023). Which guarantees decentralization and
transparency in work and community interactions within this space. The decentralized
development enabled by the blockchain has facilitated the separation between the client and
server sides in the Metaverse, contributing to its sustainability by ensuring decentralization and
fairness (Sun et al., 2022). Additionally, it is important to highlight how Web 2.0 and
blockchain technology have increased public awareness about privacy and other issues.
Blockchain technology together with Web 3.0 has allowed the formation of decentralized
autonomous organizations in the Metaverse (Zhao et al., 2022). This improves democratic
governance and automates processes through smart contracts, further driving efficiency and
transparency within this digital space.
Data management and security are critical considerations in the Metaverse.
Blockchains are essential in the development of Web 3.0 and the Metaverse as they can store
and validate data about identities and reputations, as well as facilitate the exchange of virtual
assets (Doe et al., 2023). This feature is crucial for building a robust and efficient Metaverse.
The blockchain offers solutions for the secure and transparent storage of data as well as to
guarantee fairness and security in transactions and the storage of resources and data (H. Huang
et al., 2022; Truong et al., 2023). This ensures that users can trust the integrity of their data and
transactions in the Metaverse. A notable feature of the transition to Web3.0 is that application
data is no longer stored in private databases but on open and transparent blockchains (Wu et
al., 2023). This returns digital sovereignty to users and gives them greater control over their
online information and experiences. Data in the Web3 Metaverse shares the beneficial
characteristics of blockchain data: it is open, transparent, tamper-proof, tamper-proof, and
traceable (Wu et al., 2023). This gives users confidence that their interactions and virtual assets
are protected and verified.
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
834
In conclusion, the concept of Blockchain in the Metaverse highlights the importance of
blockchain technology in the security, interoperability, privacy and sustainable development
of the Metaverse. This integration not only improves user experiences in this ever-evolving
space, but also ensures transparency, decentralization, and fairness in their interactions and
transactions. Furthermore, it drives technological innovation and the convergence of various
technologies in the Metaverse paving the way towards an exciting and promising digital future.
Blockchain in the Present
Blockchain technology is being used in various ways today, its application is very
important for various sectors of the metaverse. In this section we will review some of the most
important applications of the blockchain within the metaverse.
A. NFT
Non-Fungible Tokens (NFT) have become a highly relevant innovation in the context
of blockchain technology. These NFTs representing unique digital units play a crucial role in
irrefutable proof of digital asset ownership in the dynamic and expansive Metaverse (Truong
et al., 2023). These tokens prized for their unique character and their inability to be exchanged
by others occupy a central position in this vast new digital landscape. In an era where the
digitization of goods and experiences is common currency, NFTs offer a secure and transparent
method to authenticate ownership of digital items, which can range from virtual plots of land
to digital artistic creations (Far et al., 2022).
The adoption of NFTs in the Metaverse is based on the inherent ability of blockchain
technology to guarantee the integrity of transactions and to maintain an immutable record of
the provenance of digital assets (Buchholz et al., 2022). This means that each NFT becomes
unquestionable and permanent evidence of ownership in a constantly evolving digital
environment. In addition to their main function as proofs of ownership, NFTs have opened new
creative and entertainment perspectives in the Metaverse (García R et al., 2023). For example,
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
835
digital artists have found in NFTs a platform to display and market their art in virtual galleries,
allowing buyers to transparently follow copyright and associated terms of use.
The uniqueness of NFTs is a fundamental distinguishing feature that allows them to
accurately and uniquely represent real-world assets in the digital environment of the blockchain
(Maksymyuk et al., 2022). This in turn facilitates the transition of these assets into the vast and
diverse world of the Internet. This versatility has opened the door to a wide variety of smart
contract-based applications and use cases (H. Xu et al., 2022). In short, NFTs and the Metaverse
are experiencing an exciting symbiosis that promises a future full of opportunities. NFTs not
only act as strong proof of ownership but also play an essential role in creativity, entertainment
and authentication in this exciting new and ever-expanding digital environment (Yilmaz et al.,
2022).
B. Smart Contracts
Smart contracts are programs stored on a blockchain that are executed when
predetermined conditions are met. They are usually used to automate the execution of an
agreement so that all participants can be immediately sure of the outcome without the
involvement of any intermediary or loss of time. They can also automate a workflow by
triggering the next action when conditions are met.
Within the metaverse, smart contracts play an essential role in automating and securing
interactions between users, Metaverse service providers (MSPs), and digital content creators.
The revolutionary notion of directly incorporating contractual logic into the code, as proposed
by Szabo (Wu et al., 2023) in the 1990s it allows automatic execution of the terms of the
agreement, eliminating the need for human intervention. Ethereum devised by Buterin took
this vision further by presenting a decentralized computing platform that enables the
autonomous and transparent execution of programs on the blockchain (Sun et al., 2022). Smart
contracts based on specific rules such as the ERC-1155 and ERC-721 standards have expanded
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
836
their usefulness in various spheres from the artistic and sports fields to the medical and
educational fields (Mohammed & Ralescu, 2023).
This automated, verifiable and transparent process offered by smart contracts is crucial
to reducing harmful behavior in the financial system (Huynh-The, Gadekallu, et al., 2023) and
provides the opportunity to exchange a diverse range of digital assets on trading platforms (Wu
et al., 2023). Smart contracts allow not only the exchange of digital currencies and tokens but
also the creation and management of more complex digital assets such as non-fungible tokens
(NFTs) that have transformed sectors such as art, entertainment and video games, by allowing
authentic limited digital property.
In addition to their role in digital asset management, smart contracts enable an
unprecedented approach to copyright and intellectual property management in the metaverse.
Examples like CopyrightLY (García R et al., 2023) illustrate how smart contracts can manage
authorship claims and license terms in a decentralized environment. Connecting Ethereum
smart contracts with decentralized storage systems avoids the prohibitive costs of storing data
on-chain, ensuring data integrity and protecting digital assets in metaverse applications
(Nguyen et al., 2022).
This innovation takes on particular relevance given the explosion of content and
metadata on social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook or YouTube, where smart
contracts can serve as intermediaries connecting the blockchain with off-chain APIs (García R
et al., 2023). Together, smart contracts are transforming the way we interact, create and
safeguard digital assets in the exciting universe of the metaverse by driving decentralization,
reliability and accessibility in this new digital paradigm.
C. Development of Decentralized Platforms
The development of the metaverse as a virtual and decentralized space has been largely
driven by blockchain technologies that play a fundamental role in creating decentralized
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
837
platforms. To better understand how this has happened, Chaum first introduced the idea of
using blockchain in decentralized ledgers, highlighting its resistance to manipulation. This laid
the foundation for creating trusted systems of record in the metaverse where information is
immutable and tamper-proof, which is crucial to ensuring transparency and trust in a virtual
environment. Later, Vitalik Buterin proposed Ethereum, a decentralized platform that uses
smart contracts to execute programs autonomously and transparently (Duan et al., 2021). This
allowed the creation of decentralized applications (DApps) that operate without intermediaries
or centralized authorities. In the context of the metaverse, these DApps have become the
building blocks of various experiences and services, from virtual games to digital goods
markets.
Along these lines, it is emphasized that the decentralized architecture is crucial to avoid
centralization risks, such as the Single Point of Failure (SPoF) (Y. Wang et al., 2023) and to
ensure that the system is transparent and controlled in a distributed manner. This means that
the metaverse is based on a set of decentralized rules and protocols rather than relying on a
single central entity, ensuring equal opportunities for all participants. Additionally, it is
important to note how blockchain technologies and decentralization have driven the popularity
of digital currencies, such as Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies (Y. Huang et al., 2023). These
digital currencies are used as units of exchange in the metaverse allowing transactions without
intermediaries and providing a safe and efficient way to trade and transfer value in this virtual
environment.
On the other hand, the importance of allocating dedicated spectrum for public services
related to the metaverse (H. Xu et al., 2022). This would allow users to use blockchain
technology ubiquitously without relying on centralized operators, ensuring that blockchain
infrastructure is available to all participants in the metaverse and encouraging its adoption and
development.
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
838
In summary, blockchain technology has enabled the creation of decentralized platforms
in the metaverse such as Decentraland (Bansal et al., 2022; M. Xu, Ng, et al., 2023) which is a
decentralized virtual world that allows users to buy and sell virtual land. Users can create their
own microworlds with virtual trees, airplanes and other features. By providing a solid
foundation for trusted ledgers, smart contracts, digital asset exchange, and transparent systems.
This has driven growth and innovation in the metaverse allowing greater autonomy and equity
for its users.
D. Economy
The metaverse economy powered by blockchain technology represents a radical change
in the way we think about transactions and digital assets (Truong et al., 2023). Blockchain with
its inherent decentralization and transparency allows users to participate in an economic
ecosystem without intermediaries, trusting in the security of transactions and the authenticity
of digital asset ownership (Y. Huang et al., 2023) such as DeFi which is an emerging financial
technology that provides users with a variety of financial services such as loans and
investments without third-party authorities such as central banks or financial corporations.
Blockchain technology plays a critical role in improving the security and integrity of
transactions in the metaverse. Its immutable records ensure that ownership of virtual assets is
clear and traceable thereby reducing the risk of fraud and scams in the virtual market. In
addition, the transparency provided by blockchain provides users with a complete history of all
transactions, which increases trust in the economic system of the metaverse.
In this environment, cryptographic tokens become the universal currency, facilitating
not only the acquisition of virtual goods, but also the creation and marketing of original content
(Tao et al., 2023). Currently, there are several blockchain-based platforms such as MANA from
Decentraland and SAND from Sandbox, which require cryptocurrency tokens to buy and sell
virtual assets. Asset tokenization is an essential component in this new economy where virtual
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
839
real estate and digital works of art can be divided into fractions, providing diversified
investment opportunities (Yang et al., 2022). At the same time, blockchain-enabled smart
contracts automate and guarantee the execution of economic agreements by eliminating the
need for intermediaries and reducing costs (Y. Wang et al., 2023).
From a more idealistic approach, the metaverse seeks interoperability by allowing users
to exchange virtual items between platforms (Yang et al., 2022). The created digital twins as
well as native content created by avatars can be transparently managed, uniquely tokenized and
monetized using blockchain technology to enable commerce, and blockchain can replace
traditional billing systems and open a market for Internet services. of Things (IoT), where users
can choose from multiple mobile provider offerings (Maksymyuk et al., 2022).
95% of business executives anticipate that the metaverse will have a favorable influence
on their industry over the next five to ten years, and 61% anticipate that it will have a moderate
impact on the operation of their company. On the contrary, the economic effect of the potential
economic value of the metaverse could reach 5 trillion dollars in 2030 (Bansal et al., 2022). In
Conclusion The blockchain-powered metaverse economy promises a transformation in digital
transactions and ownership of virtual assets, while improving security and reliability, which
represents both a social and economic impact. This shift towards a more inclusive digital future
presents significant opportunities for innovation and progress.
Blockchain as a Security Tool in the Metaverse
The metaverse, a concept that encompasses the convergence of advanced technologies
such as augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), artificial intelligence (AI) and blockchain
technology, is positioned as fertile ground for digital innovation. Creating this vast digital
world poses a set of challenges with security and privacy being two of the most crucial aspects
to address. In this context, blockchain technology emerges as an essential pillar to guarantee
integrity and reliability in the metaverse.
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
840
An innovative approach is introduced by proposing the utilization of a cross-chain
federated learning framework. This revolutionary approach allows data training to be carried
out in a decentralized manner in the metaverse. In addition, it stands out for its ability to
preserve user privacy in both physical and virtual environments (Kang et al., 2022). This feat
is achieved through a hierarchical blockchain architecture comprising a main chain and
multiple subchains. This approach provides an additional layer of security and privacy in an
environment where both are essential. Emphasizing the critical role of blockchain in the
metaverse as secure and decentralized repositories to store data. The security and privacy of
user data are paramount and blockchains guarantee both characteristics (Mohammed & Ralescu,
2023). But its impact is not limited to security; It also acts as a bridge that connects the virtual
world of the metaverse with the physical world. This interconnection allows for seamless
interoperability between these two domains, creating a more dynamic and efficient metaverse
ecosystem. Therefore, it is important to address security in other areas, for example the Internet
of Things (IoT) within the metaverse. Therefore, blockchain-based architectures have been
proposed (H. Wang et al., 2023) to address identity authentication and privacy protection issues
in industrial IoT devices. This perspective underscores the need to consider security from
multiple dimensions in the metaverse.
In the context of decentralized applications (DApps), smart contracts are of great
importance. These autonomously and transparently executed contracts on the blockchain
ensure a fair and equitable environment for operations in the metaverse (Truong et al., 2023).
Consensus mechanisms and smart contracts play a crucial role in solving fundamental
problems in the metaverse. Consensus mechanisms address the issue of credit in metaverse
transactions, while smart contracts provide a trusted and transparent environment for entities
participating in the metaverse. These contracts ensure the impartial and unmodified execution
of the system rules as described in the contract codes (Yang et al., 2022). This approach
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
841
provides a solid foundation for value exchange and economic interaction in the metaverse.
Smart contracts serve as guardians of the integrity of DApps, preventing them from being
dominated by malicious attackers. This feature aligns with the need for a safe environment in
the metaverse. However, the exponential growth in the adoption of blockchain technology has
attracted the attention of cybercriminals and hackers. Targeted attacks on blockchains can take
various forms, underscoring the urgency to further strengthen security in this environment. The
need for robust security systems is evident and the metaverse community is actively seeking
innovative solutions to address these risks (Wu et al., 2023). Securing transactions on the
blockchain is essential to maintaining the integrity of the metaverse. The underlying blockchain
processes a large number of transactions to support the various applications and services in the
metaverse (Tao et al., 2023). However, the evolution of security in these transactions is in its
early stages and there is ample room for improvements and advancements in this area. The
convergence of blockchain with other key technologies has significant potential to elevate the
performance and security of the metaverse. The synergy between blockchain, artificial
intelligence and virtual reality can strengthen data protection, user authentication and
interoperability between various metaverse platforms (Y. Wang & Zhao, 2022).
It is essential to highlight that security and privacy in the metaverse not only apply to
data and virtual assets, but also to the management of user identities. The increasing
interconnection of devices and users in the metaverse poses challenges in data protection and
identity management. Guaranteeing the physical and psychological safety of users becomes a
priority in this complex environment (Han et al., 2023). Digital assets in the metaverse are of
utmost importance, exposure to risks such as personal information leakage and unauthorized
access underlines the need to safeguard virtual assets. Blockchain and non-fungible tokens
(NFTs) play an essential role in determining the ownership rights of these digital assets. The
traceability and authenticity offered by NFTs reinforce security in asset management in the
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
842
metaverse (Y. Huang et al., 2023). An interesting perspective is presented by proposing a
blockchain-based proof of concept (PoC) (García R et al., 2023) for copyright management in
the metaverse. This allows creators to claim authorship of their content by linking a hash to
their work and a timestamp on the blockchain. Additionally, creators can strengthen their
claims by adding supporting evidence such as images of the creative process or eyewitness
records. This blockchain application not only protects intellectual property rights in the
metaverse, but also establishes a reliable infrastructure for digital rights management.
In the context of the metaverse, blockchain technology is emerging not only as an
essential security tool but also as a key enabler of numerous aspects of the digital environment.
As this virtual world expands and becomes more closely integrated with reality, additional
challenges and exciting opportunities present themselves. Augmented reality (AR), virtual
reality (VR), artificial intelligence (AI), high-speed networks and cutting-edge computing are
of utmost importance; the convergence of these technologies with blockchain technology is
essential to guarantee a safe and efficient environment in the metaverse. Furthermore, the need
to consider aspects of physical and psychological security is highlighted, especially in health-
related applications in the metaverse. This includes protecting users' privacy and securing their
medical data in a virtual environment (Bansal et al., 2022). The four must-have features of the
metaverse – socialization, immersive interaction, real-world construction, and expandability –
not only enrich the metaverse experience, but also introduce security and privacy challenges.
Personal information leaks, eavesdropping, unauthorized access, and other risks require
constant attention. This is where blockchain technology along with cryptocurrencies and NFTs
play a vital role. They certify the unique identity of virtual assets and support the economic
security of the metaverse (Y. Huang et al., 2023). Secure computing techniques including
blockchains are important tools in a zero trust environment (G. Wang et al., 2022). On a
blockchain platform, developers and interested users can establish the provenance of data
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
843
through proof of work, proof of stake, or proof of history. In addition to data and virtual asset
security, authentication and protection of user identities become even more critical as the
metaverse grows. Managing decentralized and secure identities has become a key focus.
Blockchain technology can play an important role in verifying identities and managing
credentials securely and efficiently (Y. Wang et al., 2023). With the development of blockchain
and communication techniques, the Metaverse is considered a promising next-generation
Internet paradigm (Si et al., 2022).
In conclusion, the metaverse is a constantly evolving playing field that poses challenges
and opportunities in terms of security and privacy. Blockchain technology, along with other
innovations, is at the center of efforts to address these challenges and build a secure, reliable
metaverse full of possibilities. As the metaverse continues to develop the digital community
will continue to explore creative ways to use blockchain technology to strengthen security and
privacy in this exciting new digital world.
Methodology
In this study, an exhaustive review of the scientific literature has been carried out that
focuses on publications related to Blockchain and its connection with the metaverse. To carry
out this work, the guidelines established in the PRISMA statement have been followed (Figure
1 shows the four-level flow diagram used), which ensures the correct execution of the
systematic reviews. The production process in its different stages will be described in detail
below.
A. Initial Search
It started with an initial search combining the keywords 'Blockchain' and 'Metaverse' in
three databases: Scopus, IEEE Xplore and ACM. Subsequently, Boolean operators such as
'AND' and 'OR' were used, and additional terms such as 'Digital Economy', 'Transactions in the
Metaverse', 'Virtual Worlds' and 'Augmented Reality' were added. These searches generated a
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
844
substantial set of articles, although several of them were noted to be duplicates or of limited
usefulness for this review. However, these results provided us with a general understanding of
the breadth of the topic.
B. Systematic Search
We began our systematic search in early June 2023 in the Scopus, IEEE Explore, and
ACM databases. We limited our results to publications available from 2019 to the current year
2023, and that were freely accessible. To maintain an organized approach to our work, we used
the Parsifal tool, which played a key role in planning the study, formulating research questions,
defining inclusion and exclusion criteria, and classifying the reviewed articles.
Search strings varied by database, as no single string was suitable for all. The search
strings used in each are detailed below:
• In Scopus, we use the following search string: TITLE-ABS-KEY (("Block chain" OR
"Metaverse transactions") AND "metaverse") PUBYEAR > 2019 AND OA (all).
• In IEEE Xplore, two search strings were used: 1. ("Block chain" OR "Data" AND
"metaverse" OR "virtual world") AND ("digital economy" OR "cryptocurrency" OR
"virtual reality" OR "RV"). 2. ("Block chain" OR "Data") AND ("metaverse" OR
"virtual world").
• Finally, in ACM, the search string was the following: [All: block chain] AND [All:
metaverse] AND [E-Publication Date: Past 5 years].
These searches generated a total of 55 results in Scopus, 83 results when combining
both strings in IEEE Xplore, and 316 results in ACM. Before proceeding to the selection of
articles, it was necessary to define the inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
845
Fig. 1: Prisma flowchart in four levels.
Inclusion Criteria
• That the results found are academic articles.
• The chosen documents must be linked to the field of computing or computer science.
• Only publications with a maximum age of five years will be considered, that is, from
2019 to 2023.
Exclusion Criteria
• Books are excluded.
• Research published before 2019.
• Results whose content is not available in English or Spanish.
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
846
According to the established criteria, and with the reading of the title of the results, it
was considered appropriate to use 43 results from Scopus, 19 results from IEEE Xplore and 9
results from ACM, after eliminating 7 duplicate results, the summaries of each result and based
on this reading, 8 results were discarded since they did not provide greater value to the research
and did not have relevant information on the topic. The final selection of the results was made
up of 37 articles from Scopus, 19 from IEEE Xplore and 7 from ACM. Finally, 63 documents
met the inclusion criteria which were selected to carry out the systematic review. Subsequently,
a spreadsheet was created to collect relevant information from the articles, including (Title,
Authors, date, Journal, Database, type, abstract, problem, methodology, results, limitations and
future work). In addition, the articles were classified into various categories (general
blockchain, metaverse blockchain, proposed blockchain, metaverse, metaverse and security).
This categorization facilitated the organization and reading of the articles, allowing us to
answer the research questions posed. Q1: What is the structure of Blockchain? Q2: What are
the types of architecture that Blockchain uses? Q3: What are the applications of Blockchain
today? Q4: How can Blockchain be used as a tool for security in the metaverse? Q5: What is
the application trend of Blockchain in the metaverse? The articles that were used for this
research are distributed between the year 2021, 2022 and 2023 (Figure 2 shows this information
in more detail), with a particular emphasis on the year 2023, which contributed the largest
number of articles, a total of 34. These articles come from various journals, adding a total of
35 different journals (Figure 3 shows the journals and the number of articles in more detail),
where IEEE Access stands out as the one that contributed the most contributions, with a total
of 10 items.
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
847
Fig. 2: Articles classified by year
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
848
Fig. 3 Articles classified by magazines
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
849
C. Manual Search
In this work, a manual search of articles was not used, only the results generated from
the queries established in the three selected databases were used.
Resultados
In this work, blockchain and its application in the metaverse were investigated.
According to what was said by several authors, interesting results were obtained about the
union of these two technologies. Blockchain technology is essential in the creation of the
Metaverse said by (Buchholz et al., 2022) since it enables a variety of applications and services
within the metaverse. The authors (Duan et al., 2021; Far et al., 2022; Ibrahim et al., 2023;
Zhao et al., 2022) They agree that the blockchain is important for the development of the
metaverse and the creation of virtual worlds. It was found that the blockchain is widely used in
the metaverse and one of the main focuses is data security, as said by (C. Chen et al., 2022)
“Blockchain is an ingenious structure in which data acquires a new level of security. The
essential feature of decentralization supported by blockchain technology has contributed to the
security, transparency and integrity of data.” Certainly, blockchain adds a layer of security and
privacy to the metaverse data, which is essential in both the real and virtual world, and
blockchain guarantees that these characteristics are met (Kang et al., 2022; Mohammed & Ralescu,
2023). Blockchain provides data security and processes a large number of transactions to
support the various applications and services in the metaverse, however, what was expressed
by (Tao et al., 2023) “The evolution of security in these transactions is in its early stages and
there is ample room for improvements and advances in this area.” Adding to this (Hsueh & Chin,
2023) says “blockchain ensures immutability, it does not necessarily guarantee the absolute
reliability of the stored data. “Error or incorrect information entered into the chain initially will
persist, underscoring the importance of accuracy and verification in data entered into the
chain.” That is to say, this technology still needs to be developed to be able to provide
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
850
confidence that the data is completely secure and reliable to use. In order to correct this,
blockchain can be used together with other technologies to strengthen data protection, as
indicated (Y. Wang & Zhao, 2022) the technologies to be used would be Artificial Intelligence
and virtual reality.
Blockchain, apart from security, is also widely used economically according to (Yang
et al., 2022) “The blockchain is considered a fundamental infrastructure of the Metaverse as it
connects isolated sectors and establishes a solid economic system with transparent and open
rules.” Several authors also agree that blockchain has proven to be reliable in finance (Cao,
2022; Imperius & Alahmar, 2022; Lin, Du, et al., 2023; Song & Qin, 2022), With the implementation
of the blockchain in the metaverse economy, the way we conceive transactions and digital
assets changed, a clear example of this is DeFi (Y. Huang et al., 2023) an emerging financial
technology that provides users with a variety of financial services such as loans and
investments without third-party authorities such as central banks or financial corporations. In
addition to this, there are already blockchain-based platforms such as MANA from
Decentraland and SAND from Sandbox, which require cryptocurrency tokens to buy and sell
virtual assets. When talking about the economy in the metaverse, it is important to mention
NFTs (non-fungible tokens).
This technology is important since it provides several benefits, such as determining the
ownership rights of digital assets, whether it is a currency, a digital good or even ownership.
of a physical asset (Yilmaz et al., 2022), NFT reinforces security in asset management in the
metaverse due to its unique character and its inability to be exchanged by others (Buchholz et
al., 2022; Y. Huang et al., 2023) In addition, NFTs open new doors to creativity and training
in the metaverse (García R et al., 2023) “Digital artists have found in NFTs a platform to
display and market their art in virtual galleries, allowing buyers to transparently follow
copyright and associated terms of use.” NFTs began to gain popularity among the community
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
851
to the point of moving large amounts of money with the tokens that were sold, which had a
very high sale value, however, as time went by, these tokens began to drop in price and even
on certain occasions to be worth nothing, although the NFT market had a big drop, this does
not mean that the technology is not important or does not serve in the metaverse, this
technology has good foundations and a solid structure which is important to be used in the
metaverse.
The blockchain plays a fundamental role in the creation of decentralized platforms
which has allowed the creation of DApps decentralized applications (Duan et al., 2021) and it
is important to note how blockchain and decentralization boosted digital currencies like Bitcoin
and other cryptocurrencies (Y. Huang et al., 2023) in addition to enabling the creation of
decentralized platforms in the metaverse such as Decentraland (Bansal et al., 2022; M. Xu, Ng,
et al., 2023) a decentralized virtual world that allows users to buy and sell virtual land.
Blockchain is fundamental for decentralization, which makes it important for the metaverse.
Finally, the blockchain structure is well established and is currently used, however, this
does not stop innovation since the blockchain structure has served to create other types of
structures based on the blockchain structure, for example: " "BlockNet" (Lv et al., 2022),
"FileInsurer" (H. Chen et al., 2022), HCNCT (Ren et al., 2023), MIS (H. Wang et al., 2023).
These proposals for blockchain-based structures propose to improve and fill the gaps in the
original blockchain structure. These structures are still in development, some are more
established than others, however, there is a lack of research on these structures.
Several limitations were found in the results obtained from which the following future
work is proposed:
• Regarding the security of blockchain with respect to data, more research is planned on
this topic and on the development of blockchain in the field of security.
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
852
• There is a need to further investigate NFTs and their application in metaverse trading
and how their situation influences the current market.
• Expand information on the different blockchain-based architectures.
Conclusiones
In conclusion, this research focused on exploring the relationship between blockchain
technology and its application in the metaverse, and interesting findings were found supported
by various authors. The importance of blockchain technology in the creation and development
of the metaverse was highlighted, allowing a wide range of applications and services within
this virtual environment. In particular, the crucial role of blockchain in ensuring the security of
data in the metaverse was emphasized. Although its contribution to security was recognized, it
was also noted that there are still challenges and areas for improvement in the evolution of this
technology to ensure the complete reliability of the stored data. In addition to security, the
economic impact of blockchain in the metaverse was explored, highlighting its ability to
establish solid and transparent economic systems. Blockchain technology has transformed the
way digital asset transactions and management are carried out, with notable examples such as
DeFi and the rise of NFTs offering greater security and creative opportunities in the metaverse.
Blockchain-enabled decentralization was also a key aspect, driving the creation of
decentralized applications (DApps) and decentralized virtual platforms such as Decentraland.
The blockchain remains fundamental for decentralization in the metaverse. Finally, proposals
for blockchain-based structures that seek to improve and expand its original functionality were
mentioned. These proposals represent an area of continued innovation that deserves additional
research. Taken together, this research underscores the importance and potential of blockchain
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
853
technology in the construction and evolution of the metaverse, while recognizing the challenges
that must be addressed to make the most of this relationship.
Referencias bibliográficas
Ali, S., Abdullah, Armand, T. P. T., Athar, A., Hussain, A., Ali, M., Yaseen, M., Joo, M. Il, & Kim, H. C.
(2023). Metaverse in Healthcare Integrated with Explainable AI and Blockchain: Enabling
Immersiveness, Ensuring Trust, and Providing Patient Data Security. Sensors, 23(2).
https://doi.org/10.3390/S23020565
Aria, R., Archer, N., Khanlari, M., & Shah, B. (2023). Influential Factors in the Design and
Development of a Sustainable Web3/Metaverse and Its Applications. Future Internet, 15(4).
https://doi.org/10.3390/FI15040131
Bansal, G., Rajgopal, K., Chamola, V., Xiong, Z., & Niyato, D. (2022). Healthcare in Metaverse: A
Survey on Current Metaverse Applications in Healthcare. IEEE Access, 10, 119914–119946.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3219845
Buchholz, F., Oppermann, L., & Prinz, W. (2022). There’s more than one metaverse. I-Com, 21(3),
313–324. https://doi.org/10.1515/ICOM-2022-0034
Cao, L. (2022). Decentralized AI: Edge Intelligence and Smart Blockchain, Metaverse, Web3, and
DeSci. IEEE Intelligent Systems, 37(3), 6–19. https://doi.org/10.1109/MIS.2022.3181504
Chen, C., Zhang, L., Li, Y., Liao, T., Zhao, S., Zheng, Z., Huang, H., & Wu, J. (2022). When Digital
Economy Meets Web3.0: Applications and Challenges. IEEE Open Journal of the Computer
Society, 3, 233–245. https://doi.org/10.1109/OJCS.2022.3217565
Chen, H., Lu, Y., & Cheng, Y. (2022). FileInsurer: A Scalable and Reliable Protocol for Decentralized
File Storage in Blockchain. Proceedings - International Conference on Distributed Computing
Systems, 2022-July, 168–179. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICDCS54860.2022.00025
Cheng, R., Wu, N., Varvello, M., Chen, S., & Han, B. (2022). Are we ready for metaverse?: a
measurement study of social virtual reality platforms. Proceedings of the 22nd ACM Internet
Measurement Conference, IMC, 15(22), 504–518. https://doi.org/10.1145/3517745.3561417
Doe, D. M., Li, J., Dusit, N., Gao, Z., Li, J., & Han, Z. (2023). Promoting the Sustainability of Blockchain
in Web 3.0 and the Metaverse Through Diversified Incentive Mechanism Design. IEEE Open
Journal of the Computer Society, 4, 171–184. https://doi.org/10.1109/OJCS.2023.3260829
Duan, H., Li, J., Fan, S., Lin, Z., Wu, X., & Cai, W. (2021). Metaverse for Social Good: A University
Campus Prototype. Proceedings of the 29th ACM International Conference on Multimedia, 153–
161. https://doi.org/10.1145/3474085.3479238
Far, S. B., Bamakan, S. M. H., Qu, Q., & Jiang, Q. (2022). A Review of Non-fungible Tokens
Applications in the Real-world and Metaverse. Procedia Computer Science, 214(C), 755–762.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PROCS.2022.11.238
García R, Cediel A, Teixidó M, & Gil R. (2023). Semantics and Non-Fungible Tokens for Copyright
Management on the Metaverse and Beyond. ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing,
Communications and Applications. https://doi.org/10.1145/3585387
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
854
Han, J., Yang, M., Chen, X., Liu, H., Wang, Y., Li, J., Su, Z., Li, Z., & Ma, X. (2023). ParaDefender: A
Scenario-Driven Parallel System for Defending Metaverses. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man,
and Cybernetics: Systems, 53(4), 2118–2127. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMC.2022.3228928
Hsueh, C. W., & Chin, C. T. (2023). Toward Trusted IoT by General Proof-of-Work. Sensors, 23(1).
https://doi.org/10.3390/S23010015
Huang, H., Zeng, X., Zhao, L., Qiu, C., Wu, H., & Fan, L. (2022). Fusion of Building Information
Modeling and Blockchain for Metaverse: A Survey. IEEE Open Journal of the Computer Society,
3, 195–207. https://doi.org/10.1109/OJCS.2022.3206494
Huang, Y., Li, Y. J., & Cai, Z. (2023). Security and Privacy in Metaverse: A Comprehensive Survey. Big
Data Mining and Analytics, 6(2), 234–247. https://doi.org/10.26599/BDMA.2022.9020047
Huynh-The, T., Gadekallu, T. R., Wang, W., Yenduri, G., Ranaweera, P., Pham, Q. V., da Costa, D. B., &
Liyanage, M. (2023). Blockchain for the metaverse: A Review. Future Generation Computer
Systems, 143, 401–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FUTURE.2023.02.008
Huynh-The, T., Pham, Q. V., Pham, X. Q., Nguyen, T. T., Han, Z., & Kim, D. S. (2023). Artificial
intelligence for the metaverse: A survey. Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, 117.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENGAPPAI.2022.105581
Ibrahim, I. F., Morsey, M. M., Mahmoud, A. M., & El-Horbaty, E. S. M. (2023). Towards Developing a
Metaverse Authentication Model for Mobile Features. International Conference on Enterprise
Information Systems, ICEIS - Proceedings, 1, 691–697.
https://doi.org/10.5220/0012039000003467
Imperius, N. P., & Alahmar, A. D. (2022). Systematic Mapping of Testing Smart Contracts for
Blockchain Applications. IEEE Access, 10, 112845–112857.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3216874
Jansen, M., Donkervliet, J., Trivedi, A., & Iosup, A. (2023). Can My WiFi Handle the Metaverse? A
Performance Evaluation Of Meta’s Flagship Virtual Reality Hardware. ICPE 2023 - Companion of
the 2023 ACM/SPEC International Conference on Performance Engineering, 297–303.
https://doi.org/10.1145/3578245.3585022
Jiang, Y., Kang, J., Niyato, D., Ge, X., Xiong, Z., Miao, C., & Shen, X. (2023). Reliable Distributed
Computing for Metaverse: A Hierarchical Game-Theoretic Approach. IEEE Transactions on
Vehicular Technology, 72(1), 1084–1100. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2022.3204839
Kang, J., Ye, D., Nie, J., Xiao, J., Deng, X., Wang, S., Xiong, Z., Yu, R., & Niyato, D. (2022). Blockchain-
based Federated Learning for Industrial Metaverses: Incentive Scheme with Optimal AoI.
Proceedings - 2022 IEEE International Conference on Blockchain, Blockchain 2022, 71–78.
https://doi.org/10.1109/BLOCKCHAIN55522.2022.00020
Karunarathna, S., Wijethilaka, S., Ranaweera, P., Hemachandra, K., Samarasinghe, T., & Liyanage, M.
(2023). The Role of Network Slicing and Edge Computing in the Metaverse Realization. IEEE
Access, 11, 25502–25530. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3255510
Kuru, K. (2023). MetaOmniCity: Towards immersive urban metaverse cyberspaces using smart city
digital twins. IEEE Access. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3272890
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
855
Li, X., Tian, Y., Ye, P., Duan, H., & Wang, F. Y. (2023). A Novel Scenarios Engineering Methodology for
Foundation Models in Metaverse. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics:
Systems, 53(4), 2148–2159. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMC.2022.3228594
Lian, G. (2022). Blockchain-Based Secure and Trusted Distributed International Trade Big Data
Management System. Mobile Information Systems, 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/7585288
Lin, Y., Du, H., Niyato, D., Nie, J., Zhang, J., Cheng, Y., & Yang, Z. (2023). Blockchain-aided Secure
Semantic Communication for AI-Generated Content in Metaverse. IEEE Open Journal of the
Computer Society, 4, 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1109/OJCS.2023.3260732
Lin, Y., Gao, Z., Du, H., Niyato, D., Kang, J., Deng, R., & Shen, X. S. (2023). A Unified Blockchain-
Semantic Framework for Wireless Edge Intelligence Enabled Web 3.0. IEEE Wireless
Communications, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1109/MWC.018.2200568
Lv, Z., Qiao, L., Li, Y., Yuan, Y., & Wang, F.-Y. (2022). BlockNet: Beyond reliable spatial Digital Twins to
Parallel Metaverse. Patterns, 3(5). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patter.2022.100468
Maksymyuk, T., Gazda, J., Bugar, G., Gazda, V., Liyanage, M., & Dohler, M. (2022). Blockchain-
Empowered Service Management for the Decentralized Metaverse of Things. IEEE Access, 10,
99025–99037. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3205739
Mohammed, S. A., & Ralescu, A. L. (2023). Future Internet Architectures on an Emerging Scale—A
Systematic Review. Future Internet, 15(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/FI15050166
Nguyen, C. T., Hoang, D. T., Nguyen, D. N., & Dutkiewicz, E. (2022). MetaChain: A Novel Blockchain-
based Framework for Metaverse Applications. 95th IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference -
Spring, VTC 2022-Spring, 2022-June. https://doi.org/10.1109/VTC2022-
SPRING54318.2022.9860983
Polys, N., Roshan, S., Newton, E., Narula, M., & Thai, B. T. (2022). Designing for Social Interactions in
a Virtual Art Gallery. Proceedings - Web3D 2022: 27th ACM Conference on 3D Web Technology,
1–9. https://doi.org/10.1145/3564533.3564562
Qin, R., Ding, W., Li, J., Guan, S., Wang, G., Ren, Y., & Qu, Z. (2023). Web3-Based Decentralized
Autonomous Organizations and Operations: Architectures, Models, and Mechanisms. IEEE
Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics: Systems, 53(4), 2073–2082.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMC.2022.3228530
Ren, Y., Lv, Z., Xiong, N. N., & Wang, J. (2023). HCNCT:A Cross-chain Interaction Scheme for the
Blockchain-based Metaverse. ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing, Communications,
and Applications. https://doi.org/10.1145/3594542
Ritterbusch, G. D., & Teichmann, M. R. (2023). Defining the Metaverse: A Systematic Literature
Review. IEEE Access, 11, 12368–12377. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3241809
Ryu, J., Son, S., Lee, J., Park, Y., & Park, Y. (2022). Design of Secure Mutual Authentication Scheme for
Metaverse Environments Using Blockchain. IEEE Access, 10, 98944–98958.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3206457
Santos-Torres, A., Zarraonandia, T., Diaz, P., & Aedo, I. (2022). Comparing Visual Representations of
Collaborative Map Interfaces for Immersive Virtual Environments. IEEE Access, 10, 55136–
55150. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3176949
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
856
Shao, L., Tang, W. E. I., Zhang, Z., & Chen, X. (2023). Medical metaverse: Technologies, applications,
challenges and future. Journal of Mechanics in Medicine and Biology, 23(2).
https://doi.org/10.1142/S0219519423500288
Si, P., Zhao, J., Han, H., Lam, K.-Y., & Liu, Y. (2022). Resource Allocation and Resolution Control in the
Metaverse with Mobile Augmented Reality. GLOBECOM 2022 - 2022 IEEE Global
Communications Conference, 3265–3271.
https://doi.org/10.1109/GLOBECOM48099.2022.10001548
Singh, R., Akram, S. V., Gehlot, A., Buddhi, D., Priyadarshi, N., & Twala, B. (2022). Energy System 4.0:
Digitalization of the Energy Sector with Inclination towards Sustainability. Sensors, 22(17).
https://doi.org/10.3390/S22176619
Song, Y. T., & Qin, J. (2022). Metaverse and Personal Healthcare. Procedia Computer Science, 210(C),
189–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PROCS.2022.10.136
Srinivasan, S., Shippey, S., Aryafar, E., & Chakareski, J. (2023). FBDT: Forward and Backward Data
Transmission Across RATs for High Quality Mobile 360-Degree Video VR Streaming. Proceedings
of the 14th Conference on ACM Multimedia Systems, 130–141.
https://doi.org/10.1145/3587819.3590987
Sun, X., Lu, Y., Sun, J., Tang, B., Rehak, K. D., & Zhang, S. (2022). Matrix Syncer - A Multi-chain Data
Aggregator for Supporting Blockchain-Based Metaverses. Lecture Notes in Computer Science
(Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics),
13497 LNCS, 282–293. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22061-6_21
Tao, B., Dai, H. N., Xie, H., & Wang, F. L. (2023). Structural Identity Representation Learning for
Blockchain-Enabled Metaverse Based on Complex Network Analysis. IEEE Transactions on
Computational Social Systems, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1109/TCSS.2022.3233059
Truong, V. T., Le, L. B., & Niyato, D. (2023). Blockchain Meets Metaverse and Digital Asset
Management: A Comprehensive Survey. IEEE Access, 11, 26258–26288.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3257029
Uddin, M., Manickam, S., Ullah, H., Obaidat, M., & Dandoush, A. (2023). Unveiling the Metaverse:
Exploring Emerging Trends, Multifaceted Perspectives, and Future Challenges. IEEE Access, 1–1.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3281303
Wang, G., Badal, A., Jia, X., Maltz, J. S., Mueller, K., Myers, K. J., Niu, C., Vannier, M., Yan, P., Yu, Z., &
Zeng, R. (2022). Development of metaverse for intelligent healthcare. Nature Machine
Intelligence, 4(11), 922–929. https://doi.org/10.1038/S42256-022-00549-6
Wang, H., Li, H., Smahi, A., Zhao, F., Yao, Y., Chan, C. C., Wang, S., Yang, W., & Li, S.-Y. R. (2023). MIS:
A Multi-Identifier Management and Resolution System in the Metaverse. ACM Transactions on
Multimedia Computing, Communications and Applications. https://doi.org/10.1145/3597641
Wang, Y., Su, Z., Zhang, N., Xing, R., Liu, D., Luan, T. H., & Shen, X. (2023). A Survey on Metaverse:
Fundamentals, Security, and Privacy. IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials, 25(1), 319–
352. https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2022.3202047
Wang, Y., Tian, Y., Wang, J., Cao, Y., Li, S., & Tian, B. (2022). Integrated Inspection of QoM, QoP, and
QoS for AOI Industries in Metaverses. IEEE/CAA Journal of Automatica Sinica, 9(12), 2071–
2078. https://doi.org/10.1109/JAS.2022.106091
Código Científico Revista de Investigación Vol. 4 – Núm. 2 / Julio – Diciembre – 2023
857
Wang, Y., & Zhao, J. (2022). A Survey of Mobile Edge Computing for the Metaverse: Architectures,
Applications, and Challenges. 2022 IEEE 8th International Conference on Collaboration and
Internet Computing (CIC), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1109/CIC56439.2022.00011
Wang, Z., Hut, Q., Xu, M., & Jiang, H. (2022). Blockchain-based Edge Resource Sharing for Metaverse.
Proceedings - 2022 IEEE 19th International Conference on Mobile Ad Hoc and Smart Systems,
MASS 2022, 620–626. https://doi.org/10.1109/MASS56207.2022.00092
Wu, J., Lin, K., Lin, D., Zheng, Z., Huang, H., & Zheng, Z. (2023). Financial Crimes in Web3-Empowered
Metaverse: Taxonomy, Countermeasures, and Opportunities. IEEE Open Journal of the
Computer Society, 4, 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1109/OJCS.2023.3245801
Xu, H., Li, Z., Li, Z., Zhang, X., Sun, Y., & Zhang, L. (2022). Metaverse Native Communication: A
Blockchain and Spectrum Prospective. 2022 IEEE International Conference on Communications
Workshops, ICC Workshops 2022, 7–12.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCWORKSHOPS53468.2022.9814538
Xu, M., Guo, Y., Hu, Q., Xiong, Z., Yu, D., & Cheng, X. (2023). A trustless architecture of blockchain-
enabled metaverse. High-Confidence Computing, 3(1).
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.HCC.2022.100088
Xu, M., Ng, W. C., Lim, W. Y. B., Kang, J., Xiong, Z., Niyato, D., Yang, Q., Shen, X., & Miao, C. (2023). A
Full Dive Into Realizing the Edge-Enabled Metaverse: Visions, Enabling Technologies, and
Challenges. IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials, 25(1), 656–700.
https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2022.3221119
Yang, Q., Zhao, Y., Huang, H., Xiong, Z., Kang, J., & Zheng, Z. (2022). Fusing Blockchain and AI With
Metaverse: A Survey. IEEE Open Journal of the Computer Society, 3, 122–136.
https://doi.org/10.1109/OJCS.2022.3188249
Yilmaz, M., Hacaloğlu, T., & Clarke, P. (2022). Examining the Use of Non-fungible Tokens (NFTs) as a
Trading Mechanism for the Metaverse. Communications in Computer and Information Science,
1646 CCIS, 18–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15559-8_2
Zhang, H., Luo, G., Li, Y., & Wang, F. Y. (2023). Parallel Vision for Intelligent Transportation Systems in
Metaverse: Challenges, Solutions, and Potential Applications. IEEE Transactions on Systems,
Man, and Cybernetics: Systems, 53(6), 3400–3413.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMC.2022.3228314
Zhang, H., Mao, S., Niyato, D., & Han, Z. (2023). Location-Dependent Augmented Reality Services in
Wireless Edge-Enabled Metaverse Systems. IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society,
4, 171–183. https://doi.org/10.1109/OJCOMS.2023.3234254
Zhao, C., Dai, X., Lv, Y., Niu, J., & Lin, Y. (2022). Decentralized Autonomous Operations and
Organizations in TransVerse: Federated Intelligence for Smart Mobility. IEEE Transactions on
Systems, Man, and Cybernetics: Systems. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMC.2022.3228914
